A-Level Physics

• Vectors, moments and equilibrium

  ≈ 2.4%1 h 40 min

  Scalars and vectors, resolving and adding forces, moments, couples, centre of mass, and conditions for equilibrium.

  • Resolve vectors into perpendicular components and add vectors by scale drawing or calculation
  • Draw free-body diagrams and apply the conditions for equilibrium (resultant force zero, resultant moment zero)
  • Use the principle of moments, couples and torque, including problems with inclined forces
  • Locate the centre of mass/gravity and relate it to stability and toppling
  • Solve triangle-of-forces problems for three coplanar forces in equilibrium

• Kinematics, SUVAT and projectile motion

  ≈ 3.2%1 h 55 min

  Displacement, velocity and acceleration; motion graphs; the constant-acceleration equations; free fall; and projectiles with independent horizontal and vertical motion.

  • Interpret and sketch displacement–time, velocity–time and acceleration–time graphs using gradients and areas
  • Select and apply the SUVAT equations to single- and multi-stage motion under constant acceleration
  • Describe and analyse free-fall experiments to determine g
  • Solve projectile problems by treating horizontal (constant velocity) and vertical (constant acceleration) motion independently
  • Explain qualitatively how air resistance changes projectile trajectories

• Newton’s laws, drag and terminal velocity

  ≈ 2.5%1 h 40 min

  Newton’s three laws, F = ma in single- and connected-body problems, weight, friction, drag and lift, and terminal speed.

  • State and apply Newton’s three laws, identifying Newton’s third-law force pairs correctly
  • Solve F = ma problems for connected bodies, lifts, inclined planes and towing
  • Explain how drag depends on speed and how a falling object reaches terminal velocity, with velocity–time graphs
  • Analyse motion with friction and describe factors affecting stopping and braking distances
  • Distinguish mass from weight and use W = mg in varying gravitational field strengths

• Momentum, impulse and collisions

  ≈ 2.5%1 h 40 min

  Linear momentum, force as rate of change of momentum, impulse and force–time graphs, conservation of momentum, elastic and inelastic collisions and explosions (including 2-D collisions for Edexcel/IAL).

  • Define momentum and state the principle of conservation of linear momentum
  • Use F = Δ(mv)/Δt, including situations where mass changes (jets, water hoses)
  • Find impulse as the area under a force–time graph and explain safety features that increase impact time
  • Solve 1-D collision and explosion problems and decide whether a collision is elastic by comparing kinetic energy
  • Resolve momentum in two dimensions for oblique collisions (Edexcel, IAL, Cambridge extension)

• Work, energy, power and efficiency

  ≈ 2.5%1 h 40 min

  Work as force × displacement in the direction of the force, kinetic and gravitational potential energy, conservation of energy, power and efficiency.

  • Calculate work done W = Fs cos θ and the area under a force–displacement graph
  • Apply conservation of energy with kinetic, gravitational potential and elastic energy, including energy lost to friction
  • Use P = W/t = Fv for vehicles moving at constant speed against resistive forces
  • Calculate efficiency and interpret energy transfers in real systems
  • Derive ΔEp = mgΔh and Ek = ½mv² from first principles

• Materials: density, Hooke’s law, stress, strain and the Young modulus

  ≈ 2.5%1 h 40 min

  Density, Hooke’s law, springs in series and parallel, tensile stress and strain, the Young modulus, stress–strain and force–extension graphs, and elastic strain energy.

  • Apply Hooke’s law and combine spring constants for springs in series and parallel
  • Define tensile stress, tensile strain and the Young modulus, and describe the required practical to measure it
  • Interpret stress–strain and force–extension graphs: limit of proportionality, elastic limit, yield point, ultimate tensile stress, breaking stress
  • Calculate elastic strain energy from ½Fx or the area under a force–extension graph
  • Classify materials as brittle, ductile, stiff, strong or plastic and relate behaviour to structure (OCR B designer materials)

• Fluids: pressure, upthrust and viscosity

  ≈ <1%1 h 5 min

  Pearson Edexcel onlyPearson Edexcel International A Level onlyCambridge International AS & A Level onlyOCR Physics A only

  Pressure in fluids, Archimedes’ principle and upthrust, laminar and turbulent flow, viscosity and Stokes’ law, and the falling-ball method.

  • Use p = F/A and Δp = ρgΔh for pressure in liquids
  • Explain upthrust with Archimedes’ principle and solve flotation and apparent-weight problems
  • Apply Stokes’ law F = 6πηrv and combine weight, upthrust and drag to find terminal velocity or viscosity
  • Describe laminar and turbulent flow and the effect of temperature on viscosity
  • Describe the falling-ball viscosity practical and its sources of uncertainty

About 11 h 20 min of study, lessons and core practice

• Current, potential difference, resistance and resistivity

  ≈ 3%1 h 50 min

  Charge carriers and current (I = nAvq), potential difference, Ohm’s law, I–V characteristics, resistivity, temperature dependence and superconductivity.

  • Define current, potential difference and resistance, and use I = ΔQ/Δt, V = W/Q and R = V/I
  • Use I = nAvq to compare drift velocities in metals, semiconductors and insulators
  • Sketch and explain I–V characteristics of a resistor, filament lamp, diode/LED and thermistor
  • Apply R = ρL/A and describe the resistivity required practical with a micrometer
  • Explain how resistance of metals and NTC thermistors varies with temperature, and describe superconductivity and critical temperature

• D.C. circuits, Kirchhoff’s laws and potential dividers

  ≈ 3%1 h 50 min

  Series and parallel circuits, Kirchhoff’s laws as conservation of charge and energy, power, potential dividers with sensors (LDRs, thermistors).

  • Combine resistors in series and parallel and analyse multi-loop circuits with Kirchhoff’s first and second laws
  • Calculate electrical power and energy using P = IV = I²R = V²/R
  • Design and analyse potential dividers, including with thermistors and LDRs as sensors
  • Explain the effect of ideal and non-ideal voltmeters and ammeters on circuit readings
  • Solve synoptic circuit problems involving changes (e.g. a switch closing, a component heating up)

• EMF and internal resistance

  ≈ 2%1 h 30 min

  Electromotive force, terminal potential difference, lost volts, internal resistance and maximum power transfer.

  • Define emf and distinguish it from terminal potential difference
  • Use ε = I(R + r) = V + Ir in single and multi-cell circuits
  • Plot terminal pd against current and read emf (intercept) and internal resistance (−gradient) — the required practical
  • Explain why high internal resistance matters for car batteries and EHT supplies
  • Show that maximum power is delivered to a load when R = r (OCR, Cambridge extension)

About 5 h 10 min of study, lessons and core practice

• Progressive waves, polarisation and the EM spectrum

  ≈ 2.5%1 h 40 min

  Wave terminology, the wave equation, transverse and longitudinal waves, phase and phase difference, intensity, polarisation (including Malus’s law) and the electromagnetic spectrum.

  • Define amplitude, wavelength, frequency, period, phase and phase difference (in degrees and radians) and use v = fλ
  • Distinguish transverse and longitudinal waves and explain why only transverse waves can be polarised
  • Describe applications of polarisation (Polaroid, aerial alignment, stress analysis) and apply Malus’s law where required
  • Relate intensity to power per unit area and to amplitude squared
  • Recall the order and approximate wavelengths of the electromagnetic spectrum, and interpret oscilloscope traces of waves

• Superposition and stationary waves

  ≈ 2%1 h 30 min

  Formation of stationary waves, nodes and antinodes, harmonics on strings and in pipes, and the stationary-wave required practical.

  • Explain how a stationary wave forms from two progressive waves travelling in opposite directions
  • Compare stationary and progressive waves (energy transfer, amplitude, phase)
  • Find harmonic frequencies for strings and for open and closed pipes, including end corrections qualitatively
  • Use f = (1/2L)√(T/μ) and describe the string practical varying length, tension and mass per unit length
  • Describe microwave and sound stationary-wave experiments to measure wavelength

• Interference, diffraction and Young’s double slit

  ≈ 3%1 h 50 min

  Coherence, path difference, two-source interference, Young’s double slit, single-slit diffraction patterns, and the diffraction grating.

  • Explain coherence and the conditions for observable interference, using path difference and phase difference
  • Use w = λD/s for Young’s double slits and evaluate the practical, including laser safety
  • Describe single-slit diffraction patterns and how they change with slit width and wavelength
  • Apply d sin θ = nλ for diffraction gratings, find the maximum order and describe spectrometry applications
  • Explain historical significance: Young’s experiment as evidence for the wave nature of light

• Refraction, total internal reflection, optical fibres and lenses

  ≈ 1.5%1 h 20 min

  Refractive index, Snell’s law, critical angle and total internal reflection, optical fibres (modal and material dispersion), and thin lenses and lens power (Edexcel, OCR B, CCEA, IAL).

  • Use n = c/v and Snell’s law n₁ sin θ₁ = n₂ sin θ₂
  • Derive and use the critical angle sin θc = n₂/n₁ and explain total internal reflection
  • Explain step-index optical fibres, the role of cladding, and modal and material dispersion (pulse broadening)
  • Use the thin-lens equation 1/u + 1/v = 1/f, magnification and lens power in dioptres; draw ray diagrams
  • Describe how refraction explains image formation in cameras and the eye

About 6 h 20 min of study, lessons and core practice

• Photons and the photoelectric effect

  ≈ 2.5%1 h 40 min

  Photon energy, the electronvolt, threshold frequency, work function, stopping potential and why the photoelectric effect demands a particle model of light.

  • Use E = hf = hc/λ and convert between joules and electronvolts
  • Apply Einstein’s photoelectric equation hf = φ + Ek(max) and interpret graphs of Ek(max) against f
  • Explain threshold frequency and instantaneous emission as evidence against the wave model
  • Describe stopping potential measurements and the effect of intensity versus frequency on photocurrent
  • Estimate photon numbers from power and wavelength

• Energy levels, spectra and wave–particle duality

  ≈ 2%1 h 30 min

  Excitation and ionisation, line emission and absorption spectra, fluorescent tubes, de Broglie wavelength, electron diffraction, and the OCR B phasor (sum-over-paths) picture of quantum behaviour.

  • Explain excitation, de-excitation and ionisation, and calculate photon energies from energy-level diagrams
  • Distinguish continuous, emission and absorption spectra and explain the operation of a fluorescent tube
  • Use λ = h/p = h/mv for particles and calculate the de Broglie wavelength of accelerated electrons
  • Describe electron diffraction as evidence of wave behaviour and relate diffraction to atomic spacing
  • Apply the phasor/sum-over-paths model to explain reflection, refraction and diffraction of photons (OCR B)

• Particles, antiparticles, quarks and conservation laws

  ≈ 3%1 h 50 min

  Constituents of the atom and specific charge, antiparticles, pair production and annihilation, hadrons (baryons, mesons) and leptons, quarks, the four interactions and exchange particles, and conservation of charge, baryon number, lepton number and strangeness.

  • Use proton number, nucleon number and specific charge for nuclei, ions and particles
  • Describe annihilation and pair production and calculate minimum photon energies using rest energies in MeV
  • Classify particles as hadrons (baryons/mesons) or leptons and write the quark composition of protons, neutrons, pions and kaons
  • Apply conservation of charge, baryon number, lepton number (electron and muon) and strangeness to decide whether an interaction can occur
  • Draw and interpret Feynman diagrams for beta decay, electron capture and electron–proton collisions, identifying the exchange particle (W±, Z, photon, gluon)

• Particle accelerators, detectors and creating particles

  ≈ <1%1 h 5 min

  Pearson Edexcel onlyPearson Edexcel International A Level onlyOCR Physics B (Advancing Physics) onlyCCEA (Northern Ireland) only

  Linear accelerators and cyclotrons, particle detectors and track analysis, and using E = mc² and momentum conservation to discover and create particles.

  • Explain the operation of a linear accelerator and a cyclotron, including why drift tubes lengthen
  • Derive and use r = p/BQ to find momenta and charge signs from tracks in a magnetic field
  • Use E = mc² with MeV and GeV units to calculate the masses of particles created in collisions
  • Explain why high energies are needed to probe small structures (de Broglie wavelength) and to create massive particles

About 6 h 5 min of study, lessons and core practice

• Circular motion

  ≈ 2%1 h 30 min

  Radians, angular speed, centripetal acceleration and force, and circular motion in horizontal and vertical planes.

  • Convert between degrees and radians and use ω = v/r = 2πf
  • Derive and use a = v²/r = ω²r and F = mv²/r = mω²r
  • Identify which real force provides the centripetal force (tension, friction, gravity, normal reaction, lift)
  • Solve vertical-circle problems (loop-the-loop, bucket of water, bridge) for minimum speed and reaction forces
  • Explain why an object in uniform circular motion accelerates without changing speed

• Simple harmonic motion

  ≈ 3%1 h 50 min

  The defining condition a = −ω²x, displacement, velocity and acceleration equations and graphs, mass–spring and simple pendulum systems, and energy in SHM.

  • State the condition for SHM and use x = A cos ωt, v = ±ω√(A² − x²), a_max = ω²A
  • Sketch and relate displacement, velocity and acceleration–time graphs, including phase relationships
  • Use T = 2π√(m/k) and T = 2π√(L/g) and describe the SHM required practical
  • Sketch kinetic, potential and total energy against displacement and time
  • Explain the small-angle approximation for the pendulum and when SHM breaks down

• Damping, forced oscillations and resonance

  ≈ 1.2%1 h 10 min

  Free and forced vibrations, light/critical/heavy damping, resonance curves and the effect of damping, and applications and hazards of resonance.

  • Distinguish free and forced oscillations and define natural frequency and driving frequency
  • Describe light, critical and heavy damping with displacement–time graphs and applications (car suspension)
  • Sketch amplitude–driving frequency graphs and explain how damping lowers and broadens the resonance peak
  • Explain phase difference between driver and oscillator at and away from resonance
  • Discuss useful and harmful resonance (instruments, MRI, bridges, buildings)

About 4 h 30 min of study, lessons and core practice

• Internal energy, specific heat capacity and latent heat

  ≈ 2%1 h 30 min

  Internal energy as random kinetic + potential energy, absolute zero and the kelvin scale, specific heat capacity, specific latent heat and continuous-flow heating.

  • Define internal energy and explain changes in kinetic and potential energy during heating and phase changes
  • Convert between Celsius and kelvin and explain absolute zero
  • Use Q = mcΔθ and Q = mL, including mixing and continuous-flow problems
  • Describe experiments to measure specific heat capacity and specific latent heat, including heat-loss corrections
  • Interpret temperature–time graphs for heating and cooling through phase changes

• Ideal gases and kinetic theory

  ≈ 3%1 h 50 min

  Gas laws, pV = nRT = NkT, the Avogadro and Boltzmann constants, molar mass, the kinetic-theory model and its assumptions, root-mean-square speed and mean molecular kinetic energy.

  • State Boyle’s, Charles’s and the pressure law and describe the Boyle’s/Charles’s law required practical
  • Use pV = nRT and pV = NkT, and convert between moles, molecules and mass
  • List the kinetic-theory assumptions and derive pV = ⅓Nm(c_rms)²
  • Use ½m(c_rms)² = (3/2)kT = 3RT/2N_A and calculate rms speeds
  • Explain Brownian motion and how the gas laws were developed empirically before the molecular model

• First law of thermodynamics, p–V diagrams and heat engines

  ≈ <1%1 h 5 min

  AQA onlyCambridge International AS & A Level onlyEduqas onlyWJEC (Wales) only

  The first law ΔU = Q + W (sign conventions vary by board), work done by gases, p–V diagrams, isothermal and adiabatic changes, engine cycles, efficiency limits, and heat pumps (AQA engineering option).

  • Apply the first law of thermodynamics with the correct board sign convention (Cambridge: ΔU = q + w; AQA/Eduqas/WJEC: Q = ΔU + W)
  • Calculate work done as pΔV or the area under/enclosed by a p–V curve
  • Distinguish isothermal, adiabatic (pV^γ = constant), isobaric and isovolumetric processes
  • Analyse four-stroke petrol and diesel indicator diagrams and calculate indicated and brake power (AQA engineering)

About 4 h 25 min of study, lessons and core practice

• Gravitational fields, potential and orbits

  ≈ 3.3%2 h

  Newton’s law of gravitation, field strength, field lines, gravitational potential and potential energy, escape velocity, orbital motion, Kepler’s third law and geostationary satellites.

  • Use F = GMm/r² and g = GM/r², and sketch g against r inside and outside a planet
  • Define gravitational potential, use V = −GM/r and ΔW = mΔV, and relate g to the potential gradient
  • Derive T² = (4π²/GM)r³ from circular orbits and apply Kepler’s third law
  • Calculate orbital speed, orbital energy and escape velocity, and explain why energy is needed to change orbit
  • Describe geostationary and low polar orbits and their uses

• Electric fields, potential and charged particles

  ≈ 3.3%2 h

  Coulomb’s law, electric field strength for point charges and uniform fields, electric potential and potential energy, equipotentials, and the motion of charged particles in uniform fields; comparison with gravitational fields.

  • Use F = Qq/4πε₀r² and E = Q/4πε₀r², and combine fields from several charges as vectors
  • Use E = V/d for parallel plates and analyse deflection of charged particles (projectile-like motion)
  • Define electric potential, use V = Q/4πε₀r and relate E to the potential gradient; sketch equipotentials
  • Calculate work done moving charges between points of different potential
  • Compare gravitational and electric fields (similarities, differences, relative strengths)

• Capacitors: capacitance, energy and exponential charge/discharge

  ≈ 3%1 h 50 min

  Capacitance, parallel-plate capacitors and permittivity/dielectrics, energy stored, capacitors in series and parallel, and exponential charge and discharge with time constant RC.

  • Define capacitance, use C = Q/V and C = Aε₀εr/d, and explain the action of a dielectric
  • Calculate stored energy using ½QV = ½CV² = ½Q²/C and the area under a Q–V graph
  • Combine capacitors in series and parallel
  • Use Q = Q₀e^(−t/RC) and related equations for charge and discharge; define and measure the time constant and half-time (0.69RC)
  • Analyse the capacitor required practical with a ln V against t graph to find RC

• Magnetic fields and moving charges

  ≈ 2.5%1 h 40 min

  Magnetic flux density, force on a current-carrying conductor (F = BIl), force on a moving charge (F = BQv), circular paths, cyclotrons, mass spectrometers and the Hall effect (Cambridge).

  • Use F = BIl sin θ and Fleming’s left-hand rule, and describe the top-pan-balance required practical
  • Use F = BQv to explain circular paths and derive r = mv/BQ
  • Explain velocity selectors, mass spectrometers and cyclotrons
  • Describe and use the Hall effect and Hall voltage V_H = BI/ntq (Cambridge)
  • Sketch field patterns for wires, coils and solenoids

• Electromagnetic induction, AC and transformers

  ≈ 3%1 h 50 min

  Magnetic flux and flux linkage, Faraday’s and Lenz’s laws, induced emf in moving conductors and rotating coils, alternating current (peak, rms, oscilloscope measurements), transformers and power transmission.

  • Define flux (Φ = BA cos θ) and flux linkage (NΦ) and apply Faraday’s law ε = NΔΦ/Δt
  • Use Lenz’s law to predict the direction of induced current and explain it as energy conservation
  • Derive ε = BNAω sin ωt for a rotating coil and describe the search-coil required practical
  • Relate peak and rms values, and measure period and peak voltage with an oscilloscope
  • Use Ns/Np = Vs/Vp, efficiency and eddy-current losses, and explain high-voltage power transmission

• Alternating current circuits: rectification, smoothing and RLC

  ≈ <1%1 h 5 min

  Cambridge International AS & A Level onlyEduqas onlyWJEC (Wales) only

  Half- and full-wave rectification and capacitor smoothing (Cambridge), and reactance, impedance, phasors and resonance in RC, RL and RCL circuits (Eduqas/WJEC Alternating currents option).

  • Distinguish half-wave and full-wave (bridge) rectification and sketch output waveforms
  • Explain smoothing with a capacitor and how ripple depends on RC relative to the period
  • Calculate capacitive and inductive reactance and circuit impedance using phasor diagrams (Eduqas/WJEC option)
  • Find the resonant frequency of an RCL circuit f₀ = 1/(2π√(LC)) and describe the Q factor qualitatively

About 10 h 25 min of study, lessons and core practice

• Rutherford scattering and nuclear size

  ≈ 1.2%1 h 10 min

  Alpha-particle scattering evidence for the nucleus, closest-approach estimates, electron diffraction for nuclear radius, R = r₀A^(1/3) and nuclear density.

  • Describe the Rutherford scattering experiment and explain how its observations led to the nuclear model
  • Estimate the distance of closest approach by equating kinetic energy to electric potential energy
  • Describe how high-energy electron diffraction measures nuclear radius, including the first-minimum condition
  • Use R = r₀A^(1/3) (including log-graph analysis) and show that nuclear density is approximately constant

• Radioactivity, half-life and radiation risk

  ≈ 3.3%2 h

  Alpha, beta and gamma radiation, decay equations, the N–Z chart, background radiation, the inverse-square law for gamma rays, the decay constant, half-life, activity, exponential decay and radiation dose and risk.

  • Compare the nature, ionising ability, range and penetration of α, β−, β+ and γ radiation and write balanced decay equations
  • Describe the inverse-square law for gamma radiation required practical, including background correction
  • Use A = λN, N = N₀e^(−λt), A = A₀e^(−λt) and T½ = ln 2/λ; analyse ln A against t graphs
  • Explain decay as random and spontaneous and model it iteratively or with dice analogies
  • Discuss radiation dose, equivalent dose, safe handling and uses of isotopes (dating, tracers, smoke alarms)

• Mass defect, binding energy, fission and fusion

  ≈ 2.5%1 h 40 min

  Mass–energy equivalence, atomic mass units, mass defect and binding energy per nucleon, fission and fusion, thermal reactors (moderator, control rods, coolant) and waste and safety.

  • Calculate mass defect and binding energy using E = mc² with u and MeV (1 u ≙ 931.5 MeV)
  • Interpret the binding energy per nucleon curve to explain why fission and fusion release energy
  • Calculate energy released in fission and fusion reactions from masses
  • Explain chain reactions, critical mass and the roles of moderator, control rods and coolant in a thermal reactor
  • Discuss the conditions needed for fusion and the handling of radioactive waste

About 4 h 50 min of study, lessons and core practice

• Telescopes, resolving power and CCDs

  ≈ <1%1 h

  AQA only

  Refracting and reflecting telescopes, angular magnification, aberrations, the Rayleigh criterion, telescopes across the EM spectrum, and CCDs versus the eye (AQA Astrophysics option).

  • Draw ray diagrams for an astronomical refracting telescope in normal adjustment and use M = fₒ/fₑ
  • Compare refracting and Cassegrain reflecting telescopes, including chromatic and spherical aberration
  • Apply the Rayleigh criterion θ ≈ λ/D and discuss collecting power ∝ D²
  • Compare radio, infrared, UV and X-ray telescopes and why some must be in space
  • Compare CCDs with the eye by quantum efficiency, resolution, spectral range and convenience

• Stars: luminosity, temperature, classification and evolution

  ≈ 1.8%1 h 25 min

  AQA onlyPearson Edexcel onlyOCR Physics A onlyEduqas onlyWJEC (Wales) onlyCCEA (Northern Ireland) onlyCambridge International AS & A Level onlyPearson Edexcel International A Level only

  Luminosity, intensity and the inverse-square law, black-body radiation (Wien’s and Stefan’s laws), apparent and absolute magnitude, parallax, spectral classes, the Hertzsprung–Russell diagram, stellar evolution and supernovae.

  • Use Wien’s displacement law λ_max T = 2.9 × 10⁻³ m K and Stefan’s law L = 4πr²σT⁴

• Cosmology: redshift, Hubble’s law and the Big Bang

  ≈ 1.5%1 h 20 min

  Doppler shift and redshift, Hubble’s law and the age of the universe, evidence for the Big Bang (CMB, abundance of light elements), dark matter and dark energy, quasars and exoplanet detection.

  • Use z = Δλ/λ ≈ v/c and Δf/f ≈ v/c for sources moving much slower than light
  • Apply Hubble’s law v = H₀d and estimate the age of the universe as 1/H₀, handling unit conversions (km s⁻¹ Mpc⁻¹ to s⁻¹)
  • Explain the evidence for the Big Bang: galactic redshift, cosmic microwave background radiation, relative abundance of hydrogen and helium
  • Describe evidence for dark matter (galaxy rotation curves) and dark energy (type Ia supernovae)
  • Describe quasars and the radial-velocity and transit methods for exoplanets (AQA option)

About 3 h 45 min of study, lessons and core practice

• Medical imaging: X-rays, CT, nuclear medicine and ultrasound

  ≈ 1.5%1 h 20 min

  AQA onlyOCR Physics A onlyCambridge International AS & A Level onlyEduqas onlyWJEC (Wales) only

  X-ray production and attenuation, contrast media and CT scans; radioactive tracers, gamma cameras and PET; ultrasound, acoustic impedance and Doppler imaging; and dose considerations.

  • Explain X-ray production, the attenuation law I = I₀e^(−μx), half-value thickness and the use of contrast media
  • Describe CT scanning and compare it with conventional X-ray imaging (resolution, dose, cost)
  • Explain tracers (technetium-99m, fluorine-18), the gamma camera (collimator, scintillator, photomultiplier) and PET annihilation imaging
  • Use acoustic impedance Z = ρc and the intensity reflection coefficient; explain coupling gel, A-scans and B-scans and Doppler blood-flow measurement
  • Compare imaging methods and radiation dose, including effective half-life 1/T_E = 1/T_B + 1/T_P (AQA)

• The eye, the ear, ECG and endoscopy

  ≈ <1%55 min

  AQA only

  AQA Medical physics option: optics of the eye and lens corrections, the ear and decibel scales, ECG waveforms, and fibre-optic endoscopes.

  • Describe the eye as an optical system, rods and cones, and correct myopia, hypermetropia and astigmatism with lenses of stated power
  • Describe the ear, its frequency response, and use intensity level in dB and dBA
  • Interpret a normal ECG waveform and describe electrode placement
  • Explain coherent and non-coherent fibre bundles in endoscopes and keyhole surgery uses

About 2 h 15 min of study, lessons and core practice

• Rotational dynamics

  ≈ <1%1 h

  AQA only

  AQA Engineering physics option: moment of inertia, rotational kinetic energy, angular acceleration, torque, angular momentum and flywheels.

  • Use I = Σmr² and given moments of inertia; calculate rotational kinetic energy ½Iω²
  • Apply the rotational equations of motion (angular SUVAT) and T = Iα
  • Apply conservation of angular momentum (ice skaters, spinning platforms) and angular impulse
  • Explain flywheel design and uses (energy storage, smoothing torque) and calculate power P = Tω

• Turning points: discovery of the electron and the nature of light

  ≈ <1%1 h

  AQA only

  AQA Turning points option: cathode rays and thermionic emission, specific charge of the electron (Thomson), Millikan’s oil-drop experiment, Newton versus Huygens, Maxwell and Hertz, the photoelectric effect and de Broglie, and electron microscopes.

  • Describe thermionic emission and calculate electron speed from ½mv² = eV
  • Describe methods to measure e/m (crossed fields, magnetic deflection) and why the result mattered
  • Explain Millikan’s oil-drop experiment (stationary and terminal-velocity drops) and the quantisation of charge
  • Contrast Newton’s corpuscular and Huygens’ wave theories and explain how Young and Maxwell/Hertz settled the question
  • Explain transmission and scanning tunnelling electron microscopes using de Broglie wavelength

• Special relativity

  ≈ <1%1 h

  AQA onlyOCR Physics B (Advancing Physics) only

  Inertial frames, the Michelson–Morley experiment, Einstein’s postulates, time dilation, length contraction, relativistic mass/energy and muon evidence (AQA Turning points; OCR B time dilation and relativistic factor).

  • State the two postulates of special relativity and explain the significance of the Michelson–Morley null result
  • Use t = t₀/√(1 − v²/c²) and the relativistic factor γ for time dilation, including muon decay evidence
  • Use l = l₀√(1 − v²/c²) for length contraction and identify proper time and proper length
  • Use E = γmc² and explain why no massive object can reach the speed of light

• Electronics: semiconductor devices and operational amplifiers

  ≈ <1%1 h

  AQA only

  AQA Electronics option: MOSFETs, Zener diodes, photodiodes, Hall-effect sensors, LC resonant filters, and op-amps (inverting, non-inverting, summing, difference, comparator).

  • Describe the characteristics and uses of MOSFETs, Zener diodes (as voltage references), photodiodes and Hall sensors
  • Explain resonance in a parallel LC circuit as a tuned filter and calculate its resonant frequency
  • Describe ideal op-amp properties and use gain equations for inverting, non-inverting, summing and difference amplifiers
  • Use an op-amp as a comparator and explain frequency response and gain–bandwidth product

• Digital signals, imaging and communication systems

  ≈ <1%1 h 5 min

  AQA onlyOCR Physics B (Advancing Physics) only

  Analogue versus digital signals, sampling and quantisation, bit rate, logic gates and counters (AQA), digital images and pixels (OCR B), bandwidth, noise, and modulation and data transmission.

  • Explain sampling, quantisation, the sampling theorem (rate > 2 × highest frequency) and quantisation noise
  • Calculate bit rate, number of levels N = 2ᵇ, image information content (pixels × bits per pixel) and resolution
  • Describe how noise, bandwidth and transmission media (wire, fibre, radio) limit communication
  • Construct truth tables for logic gates and describe counters and latches (AQA)
  • Compare AM and FM and explain time-division multiplexing

• The physics of sports

  ≈ <1%55 min

  Eduqas onlyWJEC (Wales) only

  Eduqas/WJEC Option C: moments and stability, rotational motion and moment of inertia, projectiles with spin, collisions and the coefficient of restitution, and fluid dynamics (drag, Bernoulli) in sport.

  • Apply moments of inertia and conservation of angular momentum to diving, gymnastics and skating
  • Use the coefficient of restitution and momentum to analyse impacts (bat–ball, bouncing balls)
  • Explain the Magnus effect and Bernoulli’s principle in swing and spin
  • Analyse stability and centre of mass in sporting postures

• Energy and the environment

  ≈ <1%55 min

  Eduqas onlyWJEC (Wales) only

  Eduqas/WJEC Option D: the greenhouse effect and energy balance, solar power and photovoltaics, wind and hydroelectric power, fission and fusion as energy sources, thermal conduction and insulation (U-values), and energy storage.

  • Model the Earth’s energy balance using Stefan’s law and explain the greenhouse effect
  • Calculate power available from wind (½ρAv³) and water (flow rate × ρgh) and efficiency of solar cells
  • Use thermal conduction ΔQ/Δt = −AK ΔT/Δx and U-values for building insulation
  • Evaluate fuel cells, batteries and pumped storage and the environmental impacts of each energy source

• Iterative modelling and the Boltzmann factor

  ≈ <1%55 min

  OCR Physics B (Advancing Physics) only

  OCR B Advancing Physics: step-by-step (iterative) computational models of exponential decay, capacitor discharge and oscillations, and the Boltzmann factor e^(−E/kT) for thermally activated processes.

  • Build and interpret iterative models of capacitor discharge and radioactive decay (ΔN = −λNΔt)
  • Model simple harmonic motion iteratively (a = −(k/m)x) and discuss step size and errors
  • Use the Boltzmann factor e^(−E/kT) to compare rates of thermally activated processes (evaporation, reaction rates, charge carriers)
  • Compare model predictions with experimental data and discuss the validity of assumptions

About 7 h 50 min of study, lessons and core practice